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Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge

FAA-H-8083-25C Version October 20, 2025
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Chapter 14

Airport Operations

Collision Avoidance

Title 14 of the CFR part 91 has established right-of-way rules, minimum safe altitudes, and VFR cruising altitudes to enhance flight safety. The pilot can contribute to collision avoidance by being alert and scanning for other aircraft. This is particularly important in the vicinity of an airport.

Effective scanning is accomplished with a series of short, regularly spaced eye movements that bring successive areas of the sky into the central visual field. Each movement should not exceed 10°, and each should be observed for at least 1 second to enable detection. Although back and forth eye movements seem preferred by most pilots, each pilot should develop a scanning pattern that is most comfortable and then adhere to it to assure optimum scanning. Even if entitled to the right-of-way, a pilot should yield if another aircraft seems too close.

Clearing Procedures

The following procedures and considerations are in place to assist pilots in collision avoidance under various situations:

  • Before takeoff-prior to taxiing onto a runway or landing area in preparation for takeoff, pilots should scan the approach area for possible landing traffic executing appropriate maneuvers to provide a clear view of the approach areas.
  • Climbs and descents-during climbs and descents in flight conditions that permit visual detection of other traffic, pilots should execute gentle banks left and right at a frequency that permits continuous visual scanning of the airspace.
  • Straight and level-during sustained periods of straight-and-level flight, a pilot should execute appropriate clearing procedures at periodic intervals.
  • Traffic patterns-entries into traffic patterns while descending should be avoided.
  • Traffic at VOR sites-due to converging traffic, sustained vigilance should be maintained in the vicinity of VORs and intersections.
  • Training operations-vigilance should be maintained and clearing turns should be made prior to a practice maneuver. During instruction, the pilot should be asked
Vortex avoidance procedures.
Figure 14-47. Vortex avoidance procedures.

High-wing and low-wing aircraft have their respective blind spots. The pilot of a high-wing aircraft should momentarily raise the wing in the direction of the intended turn and look for traffic prior to commencing the turn. The pilot of a low-wing aircraft should momentarily lower the wing and look for traffic prior to commencing the turn.

Training Operations

Operators of pilot training programs are urged to adopt the following practices:

  • Pilots undergoing flight instruction at all levels should be requested to verbalize clearing procedures (call out “clear” left, right, above, or below) to instill and sustain the habit of vigilance during maneuvering.
  • High-wing airplane. Momentarily raise the wing in the direction of the intended turn and look.
  • Low-wing airplane. Momentarily lower the wing in the direction of the intended turn and look.
  • Appropriate clearing procedures should precede the execution of all turns including chandelles, lazy eights, stalls, slow flight, climbs, straight and level, spins, and other combination maneuvers.

Scanning Techniques for Traffic Avoidance

  • Pilots must be aware of the limitations inherent in the visual scanning process. These limitations may include:
  • Reduced scan frequency due to concentration on flight instruments or tablets and distraction with passengers.
  • Blind spots related to high-wing and low-wing aircraft in addition to windshield posts and sun visors.
  • Prevailing weather conditions including reduced visibility and the position of the sun.
  • The attitude of the aircraft will create additional blind spots.
  • The physical limitations of the human eye, including the time required to (re)focus on near and far objects, from the instruments to the horizon for example; empty field myopia, narrow field of vision and atmospheric lighting all affect our ability to detect another aircraft.

Best Practices to See and Avoid

  • ADS-B In is an effective system to help pilots see and avoid other aircraft. If your aircraft is equipped with ADS-B In, it is important to understand its features and how to use it properly. Many units provide visual and/or audio alerts to supplement the system's traffic display. Pilots should incorporate the traffic display in their normal traffic scan to provide awareness of nearby aircraft. Prior to taxiing onto an airport movement area, ADS-B In can provide advance indication of arriving aircraft and aircraft in the traffic pattern. Systems that incorporate a traffic-alerting feature can help minimize the pilot's inclination to fixate on the display. Refer to 4-5- 7e, ADS-B Limitations.
  • Understand the limitations of ADS-B In. In certain airspace, not all aircraft will be equipped with ADS-B Out or transponders and will not be visible on your ADS-B In display.
  • Limit the amount of time that you focus on flight instruments or tablets.
  • Develop a strategic approach to scanning for traffic. Scan the entire sky and try not to focus straight ahead.

Pilot Deviations (PDs)

A pilot deviation (PD) is an action of a pilot that violates any Federal Aviation Regulation. While PDs should be avoided, the regulations do authorize deviations from a clearance in response to a traffic alert and collision avoidance system resolution advisory. You must notify ATC as soon as possible following a deviation.

Pilot deviations can occur in several different ways. Airborne deviations result when a pilot strays from an assigned heading or altitude or from an instrument procedure, or if the pilot penetrates controlled or restricted airspace without ATC clearance.

To prevent airborne deviations, follow these steps:

  • Plan each flight-you may have flown the flight many times before but conditions and situations can change rapidly, such as in the case of a pop-up temporary flight restriction (TFR). Take a few minutes prior to each flight to plan accordingly.
  • Talk and squawk-Proper communication with ATC has its benefits. Flight following often makes the controller’s job easier because they can better integrate VFR and IFR traffic.
  • Give yourself some room-GPS is usually more precise than ATC radar. Using your GPS to fly up to and along the line of the airspace you are trying to avoid could result in a pilot deviation because ATC radar may show you within the restricted airspace.